Local perceptions of water-related issues

Overall, both watersheds are perceived as being dry by their residents. Seventy-five percent of the residents in JKW indicated that their area was dry, whereas 53% answered the same in YKW. Forty-four percent of respondents in YKW said that they believed their area was wet; the remaining 3% expressed no opinion. This response is of particular interest when one notes that people along the boundary of YKW perceive their area as being dry, although annual precipitation of about 3000 mm can be expected.

In both watersheds, water quantity is a major concern (Figure 2). Irrigation water in particular is in short supply. Thirty-three percent of respondents in JKW and 41% in YKW mentioned that they faced irrigation water shortages. This is closely followed by domestic water shortage, with 27% of respondents in JKW and 37% in YKW stating that they have insufficient quantities of domestic water available.

Domestic water quality is increasingly becoming a concern, with 17% of respondents in JKW and 9% in YKW stating that they have water quality problems.

An interesting picture emerges when one divides the watersheds into different zones according to elevation and aspect. This division is based on the assumption that water availability changes with increasing altitude because of differences in both rainfall conditions and topographic settings. Aspect influences rainfall input as well as water loss through evapotranspiration.

From Table 2, it is evident that domestic water problems are widespread in JKW. The situation is slightly more problematic on south-facing slopes than on north-facing slopes. In YKW, on the other hand, mainly higher areas face water problems, both on northern and on southern slopes.

In terms of irrigation water, all areas in JKW face water supply constraints, except the area between 1000 and 1500 m on north-facing slopes. These areas along northern slopes of the watershed have direct access to rivers, with only few diversions further upstream. It is argued that there used to be enough water in the valley when a more traditional farming system existed (less than 2 crops per year). With the introduction of cash crops and a multiple cropping system, the demand on water resources has increased significantly but supply has remained the same per unit area. This has led to inadequate water supply in general, and not only for the new agricultural practices.

In YKW, the areas along the divide face irrigation water constraints because of nonavailability of sources with adequate yield or access to rivers. Areas below 1500 m are the main irrigation areas of the watershed. Irrigation water shortage in these areas is due to diversion of water by upstream farmers.

From the aforementioned data, it is clear that elevation is not the main reason for water constraints or inadequate water supply. The topographic setting, site conditions according to aspect, and seasonal differences as discussed in Merz et al (2002) are more important. Although the uppermost areas in the watershed along the divide receive the highest rainfall, they are the areas with least access to springs and rivers. In many places, residents of these areas have to walk long distances for their drinking water. In lower areas, water availability may be affected by upstream diversions mainly during the dry season. Intensification of agricultural production has led to increased water demand in irrigated areas and is therefore the main reason for water supply constraints. This is shown by the high percentage of respondents mentioning irrigation water shortage at present (Figure 2) and by the increase in the percentage of such respondents over the last 5 and 25 years (Figure 3).

It is interesting to note that—according to responses from participants—too much water during monsoon causing flooding, land degradation, and slumping of terraces is not an issue in the perception of respondents. These factors are often said to be a major problem, especially from an external point of view. Other hazards rarely mentioned by farmers were drought and disputes over water.

In summary, it can be said that in the perception of local residents in watersheds of the Middle Mountains of Nepal, the areas of interest and focus are agricultural water supply and domestic water supply, both in terms of quantity and quality (both will be discussed in more detail below). Land degradation by water and flooding is of concern to those living in downstream communities and to scientists, but receives little attention from local residents in the upper parts of the watersheds. The reason for this is that upstream residents are hardly affected; moreover, little can be done about such natural calamities.

Agricultural water supply

As shown above, adequate water supply for irrigation is the main constraint in both watersheds, and water shortage is mainly confined to the dry winter and premonsoon months (ie, November to May/June [Merz et al 2000a]). The main cropping patterns that use irrigation are rice–potato–maize, rice–wheat–different crops, and rice–wheat in JKW and rice–wheat in YKW. Therefore, the perceived water shortage pattern affects crops like potato, wheat, and different cash crops in JKW and wheat in YKW. No problems are envisaged for the rice crops grown during the monsoon in both watersheds.

On rainfed agricultural land, farmers usually follow a maize–wheat or maize–different crops (JKW) and maize–millet (YKW) rotation. Crops are affected by dry conditions mainly outside the monsoon season or during the transplanting time of monsoon crops. With the increasing intensity of agricultural production, the use of high-yielding varieties, and triple to quadruple crop rotations, irrigation water supply has shown a decreasing trend in JKW in the last few years, according to respondents. Thirty-eight percent of respondents indicated a decreasing trend, with 29% indicating no change; 24% did not provide an answer, and 9% indicated an increase in water availability (Figure 3). In YKW, where intensification has only taken place to a limited degree, most respondents did not indicate any change (79%). However, 17% of respondents indicated a decreasing trend, 2% an increasing trend, and 1% did not answer.

There is no evidence that rainfall rates have decreased over the last 20 years, so this can be discarded as the reason for decreasing water availability (Merz et al 2002). Increasing cropping intensity has been documented by Shrestha and Brown (1995), who have shown that mean cropping intensity in JKW changed from 1.3 to 2.5 between 1980 and 1994, with up to 4 crops per year on prime agricultural land. According to Schreier and Shah (2000), soil fertility is decreasing because of this intensification, and farmers try to compensate this loss in soil fertility by applying high doses of mineral fertilizer. Farmers in JKW apply up to 400 kg urea per hectare (46% nitrogen [Pandey and Joshy 2000]), 800 kg diammonium phosphate (18% nitrogen, 46% phosphorus), and 800 kg complex fertilizer (20% nitrogen, 20% phosphorus) to their potato crops. Other crops are supplied with about 200 kg/ha of the different fertilizers.

High fertilizer application rates have led to a change in the soil nutrient balance. Phosphorus is now mostly available in surplus in the soil, whereas potassium is in short supply in most cases (VanWestarp 2002). Phosphate is lacking in all bedrock in the area, and soils are inherently low in phosphate content. The farmers, therefore, add high doses of fertilizers to their intensively used fields. Much of this applied fertilizer is washed into the river system of the watershed as shown by the elevated phosphate levels at selected sites in JKW, mainly during the monsoon but also during the premonsoon season in the upper areas (eg, sites 2002, 2005, 2015, and 2016 [Figure 4]). During this time, DAP fertilizer is applied to the potato crop in these upper areas.

In YKW, the amount of fertilizer is generally limited. The average dosage per hectare of crop generally does not exceed 150–200 kg urea. The potato crop on rainfed land is an exception, for which an average of 20 farmers apply 400–500 kg urea per hectare.

Heavy doses of fertilizer and intensive use of agricultural land have had an impact on water quality in the watershed, as shown by the water quality survey of JKW. The main pollutants are microbes, phosphates, and nitrates. Harmful fecal coliform mainly come from human and animal waste. Phosphate and nitrate pollution is mainly believed to originate from agricultural practices (fertilizer) (Figure 4), and eutrophication can now be observed in many lowland sections of JKW. Detailed investigations of this issue are planned.

Increasing intensification may further deplete available water resources under the current management practices. In addition, the state of the environment may worsen because of deteriorating water quality.

Domestic water supply

Irrigation water constraints are matched by inadequate supply of water for domestic purposes. Issues in this respect are the water shortage during the dry season from October to May/June and sediment contamination of public water sources during monsoon. On average, a household uses 160 l/d in JKW and 122 l/d in YKW. This equals an amount of 21.1 l/d per person in YKW and 23.2 l/d per person in JKW, taking into consideration the average household size of 5.8 persons in YKW and 6.8 in JKW. For rural water supply schemes in Nepal, 45 l/d per person is recommended. For assessment of the current public water supply, a survey of all public water sources was conducted in the 2 watersheds.

During the survey, more than 400 public water sources were identified in JKW. Out of these 400 sources, only 322 were documented on the basis of relevance to local residents. All documented water sources are presented in Figure 5.

The known public water sources in JKW are spring boxes (kuwas), taps, rivers, wells, and springs. The yield, measured toward the end of the monsoon in September 1999, varies widely from 0.01 to 4.5 l/s. The combined yield of all 322 sources was 58.3 l/s. Most of the sources (89%) are community-owned. Only 5% were government-managed, and 6% were in private hands. Privatization of the sources is becoming a common issue. More and more people rely on their privately owned water sources, such as dug wells and polythene pipes. The number of households depending on a single source has a considerable effect on supply. The maximum number of households depending on a single source was 290. On average, 18 households depended on a single water source.

A similar survey was conducted in YKW; 215 public water sources were mapped. Their yield ranged from 0.001 to 3.7 l/s, with a combined yield of 37.7 l/s in May 2000 (note that this survey was conducted toward the end of the dry season; no direct comparison is therefore possible with the results from JKW).

Water quality investigations of public water sources in JKW confirm the findings from the river sites in this watershed. Thus, pH values, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity are higher than recommended in certain samples, but the main reasons for concern are microbiological contaminants and phosphate.

Fecal coliform is present in most sampled water sources. The concentrations are usually orders of magnitude above recommended values. In general, fecal coliform content in the samples is higher during monsoon than during premonsoon. The lowest concentrations are measured in postmonsoon and winter (October–February). This is believed to be the result of increased interaction between surface water and shallow groundwater, not to mention the influence of pollution around the sources, which is washed into them. Surface water is usually more contaminated. This was also shown in the case of river water quality monitoring.

Phosphate concentration is of major concern. In most of the sources, phosphate concentration exceeds the limit of 0.4 mg/l mentioned in guidelines set by the European Union. This is mainly attributable to human activities in and around public water sources. In many cases, washing and bathing around the sources are an integral part of life. Leaching of agricultural contaminants (eg, from DAP fertilizer) into the groundwater increases phosphate levels in the water. Both the origin and consequences of elevated phosphate levels are under closer investigation, and conclusive answers are expected at a later stage. At this point, it has to be mentioned that phosphate does not have a direct impact on human health but may increase organic pollution.

Microbiological contamination has a significant impact on the health of people in the watershed, as shown by a survey of health posts in JKW. According to health officials, 25% of patients visiting the 9 health units and health and subhealth posts suffer from water-related diseases. Most patients suffer from diarrhea followed by worm infestation and dysentery. It is interesting to note the return of malaria to an area where it was eradicated in the late 1950s. According to health officials in the area, malaria accounts for the majority of fever cases in the valley bottom of the watershed during monsoon.

Domestic water availability has increased over the last 5 and 25 years according to interviewed households (see Figure 3). This is mainly attributable to the various programs on water supply funded by nongovernmental organizations, international nongovernmental organizations, and the government. However, overall availability is still perceived to be limited.

In summary, it can be stated that domestic water shortage during the dry season and microbiological contamination are the main concerns in public water supply. People mainly depend on natural springs, piped springs, and springs collected in spring boxes. Developmental efforts, therefore, have to mainly address these methods or introduce new ways of water supply, supporting but not replacing existing methods.